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Biotech Lab

Biotechnology uses living things and their molecules to make medicines, food and tools. See how it grew, one discovery at a time.

Trace how discoveries about DNA became tools such as PCR and CRISPR, and which uses are established practice versus still emerging.

Follow the path from molecular genetics to genome engineering, with primary sources for each milestone and a clear line between established methods and early-stage research.

BiotechnologySynthetic BiologyGenetics

How we label how settled something is

EstablishedWidely replicated, or in routine use in research or medicine.

Emerging researchNewer, with limited long-term evidence, or still mainly in research or early clinical use.

Technology explorer

Pick a technology to see how it works, what it is used for, and the ethical questions it raises. Each one is labeled established or emerging.

Technologies

Recombinant DNA

Established

Scientists cut a gene out of one organism's DNA and paste it into another, so that organism makes something new.

Enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences, and the pieces are joined into a carrier such as a bacterial plasmid. Cells that take up the plasmid copy it and can produce the protein the gene encodes.

Restriction enzymes and ligases assemble recombinant molecules that replicate in a host. Expression systems produce proteins such as insulin; regulators assess the safety of the organisms and products.

Used for

  • Insulin and other protein medicines
  • Research tools in almost every biology lab
  • Enzymes used in food and industry

Ethics and oversight

At the 1975 Asilomar conference, scientists concluded that this research should proceed only under strict guidelines. Risk-based biosafety containment and oversight remain standard practice.

Sources

Timeline of biotechnology

Key discoveries, tools, medicines and governance decisions, each dated by the publication or announcement it cites. Filter by kind of milestone or by how settled it is.

Showing 39 of 39 milestones

  1. 1920s

    1. 1929

      A mold that kills bacteria

      Alexander Fleming reports that a Penicillium mold stops the growth of nearby bacteria, the observation behind penicillin.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Fleming, 1929: On the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  2. 1940s

    1. 1944

      DNA carries hereditary information

      Avery, MacLeod and McCarty show that purified DNA can transform one type of bacterium into another.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Avery et al., 1944: Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  3. 1950s

    1. 1952

      Genes are made of DNA, not protein

      Experiments with viruses that infect bacteria show that DNA, not protein, enters the cell and directs new viruses.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Hershey & Chase, 1952: Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    2. 1953

      The double helix

      Watson and Crick propose the double-helix structure of DNA, supported by X-ray data from Franklin, Gosling, Wilkins and colleagues.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Watson & Crick, 1953: Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Franklin & Gosling, 1953: Molecular configuration in sodium thymonucleate (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Wilkins et al., 1953: Molecular structure of deoxypentose nucleic acids (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    3. 1958

      How DNA copies itself

      Meselson and Stahl show that each new DNA molecule keeps one old strand and makes one new one.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Meselson & Stahl, 1958: The replication of DNA in Escherichia coli (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  4. 1960s

    1. 1961

      Cracking the genetic code

      Nirenberg and Matthaei decode the first codon, and Crick and colleagues show the code is read in triplets.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Nirenberg & Matthaei, 1961: The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Crick et al., 1961: General nature of the genetic code for proteins (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    2. 1969

      A heat-loving microbe

      Thermus aquaticus is described from hot springs. Its heat-stable enzymes later make PCR practical.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Brock & Freeze, 1969: Thermus aquaticus gen. n. and sp. n., a nonsporulating extreme thermophile (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  5. 1970s

    1. 1972

      The first recombinant DNA molecules

      Researchers join DNA from different sources into a single molecule for the first time.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Jackson et al., 1972: Biochemical method for inserting new genetic information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: circular SV40 DNA molecules containing lambda phage genes and the galactose operon of Escherichia coli (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    2. 1973

      Recombinant plasmids in bacteria

      Engineered plasmids are shown to work inside bacteria, the foundation of genetic engineering.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Cohen et al., 1973: Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    3. 1975

      Scientists debate the risks

      Participants at the Asilomar conference conclude, though not unanimously, that recombinant DNA research should proceed, but under strict guidelines.

      Ethics and governanceEstablished

      Cited: Berg et al., 1975: Summary statement of the Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA molecules (Perspective, opens in a new tab)U.S. National Library of Medicine: Recombinant DNA Technologies and Researchers' Responsibilities, 1973-1980 (Reference, opens in a new tab)

    4. 1975

      Monoclonal antibodies

      Köhler and Milstein fuse antibody-making cells with tumor cells, creating continuous cultures that secrete a single antibody of predefined specificity.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Köhler & Milstein, 1975: Continuous cultures of fused cells secreting antibody of predefined specificity (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    5. 1976

      Containment levels for recombinant DNA

      U.S. National Institutes of Health guidelines assign each kind of experiment a physical and a biological level of containment.

      Ethics and governanceEstablished

      Cited: U.S. National Library of Medicine: Recombinant DNA Technologies and Researchers' Responsibilities, 1973-1980 (Reference, opens in a new tab)

    6. 1977

      Reading DNA letter by letter

      Sanger and colleagues, and Maxam and Gilbert, publish methods to determine DNA sequences.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Sanger et al., 1977: DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Maxam & Gilbert, 1977: A new method for sequencing DNA (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    7. 1979

      Human insulin genes in bacteria

      Chemically made genes for human insulin are expressed in E. coli, leading to recombinant insulin medicines.

      MedicineEstablished

      Cited: Goeddel et al., 1979: Expression in Escherichia coli of chemically synthesized genes for human insulin (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Johnson, 1983: Human insulin from recombinant DNA technology (Review, opens in a new tab)

  6. 1980s

    1. 1985

      The polymerase chain reaction

      PCR copies a chosen stretch of DNA millions of times; an early use detected the sickle cell variant.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Saiki et al., 1985: Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Mullis & Faloona, 1987: Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    2. 1988

      PCR with a heat-stable enzyme

      Using Taq polymerase lets PCR run through repeated heating cycles without adding fresh enzyme.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Saiki et al., 1988: Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Chien et al., 1976: Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase from the extreme thermophile Thermus aquaticus (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  7. 1990s

    1. 1990

      BLAST searches sequence databases

      A fast heuristic algorithm makes it practical to search large sequence databases for sequences similar to a new one.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Altschul et al., 1990: Basic local alignment search tool (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    2. 1996

      First genome of a eukaryote

      The complete genome of baker's yeast is published, with about 6,000 genes.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Goffeau et al., 1996: Life with 6000 genes (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    3. 1997

      Cloning from an adult cell

      A sheep is cloned from an adult cell, showing that the nucleus of a specialized cell can still direct the development of a whole animal.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Wilmut et al., 1997: Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    4. 1998

      RNA interference

      Double-stranded RNA is found to silence matching genes, opening a new way to switch genes off.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Fire et al., 1998: Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  8. 2000s

    1. 2000

      The first synthetic gene circuits

      A genetic toggle switch and an oscillating circuit are built in bacteria, launching synthetic biology.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Gardner et al., 2000: Construction of a genetic toggle switch in Escherichia coli (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Elowitz & Leibler, 2000: A synthetic oscillatory network of transcriptional regulators (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    2. 2001

      Drafts of the human genome

      Two teams publish draft sequences of the human genome.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Lander et al., 2001: Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Venter et al., 2001: The sequence of the human genome (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    3. 2005

      Modified RNA avoids an immune alarm

      Modified nucleosides reduce the immune response to synthetic mRNA, a key step toward mRNA medicines.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Karikó et al., 2005: Suppression of RNA recognition by Toll-like receptors: the impact of nucleoside modification and the evolutionary origin of RNA (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    4. 2006

      Reprogramming cells to a stem-cell state

      Four factors turn adult mouse cells into induced pluripotent stem cells.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Takahashi & Yamanaka, 2006: Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    5. 2007

      CRISPR is a bacterial immune system

      Bacteria are shown to use CRISPR sequences to resist viruses.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Barrangou et al., 2007: CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Mojica et al., 2005: Intervening sequences of regularly spaced prokaryotic repeats derive from foreign genetic elements (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  9. 2010s

    1. 2010

      A cell run by a synthetic genome

      A bacterial cell is controlled by a genome that was chemically synthesized.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Gibson et al., 2010: Creation of a bacterial cell controlled by a chemically synthesized genome (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    2. 2012

      Programmable DNA cutting with Cas9

      Cas9 guided by an RNA can be programmed to cut a chosen DNA sequence.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Jinek et al., 2012: A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    3. 2013

      CRISPR edits human cells

      Two groups show CRISPR genome editing in human and mouse cells.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Cong et al., 2013: Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas systems (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Mali et al., 2013: RNA-guided human genome engineering via Cas9 (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    4. 2013

      Engineered yeast for an antimalarial

      Engineered yeast produces a precursor that is converted chemically into artemisinin.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Paddon et al., 2013: High-level semi-synthetic production of the potent antimalarial artemisinin (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    5. 2016

      Base editing

      Single DNA letters are changed without cutting both strands of the double helix.

      Tool or methodEmerging research

      Cited: Komor et al., 2016: Programmable editing of a target base in genomic DNA without double-stranded DNA cleavage (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    6. 2016

      A minimal bacterial genome

      A synthetic cell with only 473 genes, fewer than any free-living cell found in nature, still grows. The functions of 149 of those genes were unknown.

      DiscoveryEmerging research

      Cited: Hutchison CA 3rd et al., 2016: Design and synthesis of a minimal bacterial genome (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    7. 2017

      Gene therapies succeed in trials

      Phase 3 and early trials report benefits from gene therapies for an inherited blindness and spinal muscular atrophy.

      MedicineEstablished

      Cited: Russell et al., 2017: Efficacy and safety of voretigene neparvovec (AAV2-hRPE65v2) in patients with RPE65-mediated inherited retinal dystrophy: a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3 trial (Clinical trial, opens in a new tab)Mendell et al., 2017: Single-dose gene-replacement therapy for spinal muscular atrophy (Clinical trial, opens in a new tab)

    8. 2018

      CAR T cells against leukemia

      Engineered immune cells produce remissions in children and young adults with a form of leukemia.

      MedicineEstablished

      Cited: Maude et al., 2018: Tisagenlecleucel in children and young adults with B-cell lymphoblastic leukemia (Clinical trial, opens in a new tab)June & Sadelain, 2018: Chimeric antigen receptor therapy (Review, opens in a new tab)

    9. 2019

      Prime editing

      A search-and-replace editor rewrites DNA without double-strand breaks or donor DNA. Clinical use is still being studied.

      Tool or methodEmerging research

      Cited: Anzalone et al., 2019: Search-and-replace genome editing without double-strand breaks or donor DNA (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

  10. 2020s

    1. 2020

      mRNA vaccines in large trials

      Randomized trials report high efficacy for mRNA COVID-19 vaccines; full FDA approval of the first follows in 2021.

      MedicineEstablished

      Cited: Polack et al., 2020: Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine (Clinical trial, opens in a new tab)Baden et al., 2021: Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (Clinical trial, opens in a new tab)FDA, 2021: FDA Approves First COVID-19 Vaccine (Regulatory notice, opens in a new tab)

    2. 2021

      AI predicts protein structures

      AlphaFold predicts many protein structures with high accuracy from sequence alone.

      Tool or methodEstablished

      Cited: Jumper et al., 2021: Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold (Primary research, opens in a new tab)Varadi et al., 2022: AlphaFold Protein Structure Database: massively expanding the structural coverage of protein-sequence space with high-accuracy models (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    3. 2021

      A framework for governing genome editing

      The World Health Organization publishes recommendations for overseeing human genome editing.

      Ethics and governanceEstablished

      Cited: WHO, 2021: Human genome editing: a framework for governance (Guidance, opens in a new tab)National Academies, 2017: Human Genome Editing: Science, Ethics, and Governance (Consensus report, opens in a new tab)

    4. 2022

      A complete human genome

      The Telomere-to-Telomere consortium closes the remaining gaps in the human genome sequence.

      DiscoveryEstablished

      Cited: Nurk et al., 2022: The complete sequence of a human genome (Primary research, opens in a new tab)

    5. 2023

      First CRISPR-based therapy approved

      The FDA approves Casgevy, a CRISPR-based gene therapy for sickle cell disease, for patients 12 and older.

      MedicineEmerging research

      Approved, but long-term outcomes are still being followed, so we label it emerging.

      Cited: FDA, 2023: FDA Approves First Gene Therapies to Treat Patients with Sickle Cell Disease (Regulatory notice, opens in a new tab)Frangoul et al., 2021: CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing for sickle cell disease and β-thalassemia (Clinical trial, opens in a new tab)

Back to the technology explorer

How PCR copies DNASource: NHGRISource: Saiki et al., 1988Source: Mullis & Faloona, 1987

Simplified model

Copies grow by up to (1 + efficiency) each cycle, slowed by a logistic limit as reagents run out. The ceiling and detection threshold are round numbers chosen for illustration, not measurements of a real reaction.

  1. 1Separate

    Heat splits the double-stranded DNA into single strands.

  2. 2Bind primers

    Cooling lets short primers attach on either side of the target.

  3. 3Copy

    A heat-stable polymerase builds a new strand from each primer.

100
90%
35

After 35 cycles: 4.3 × 10¹¹ copies

Without any limit: 5.7 × 10¹¹

Crosses the detection threshold at cycle 28.7.

Copies of the target sequence after each PCR cycle, on a logarithmic scale
  • Model with reagent limit
  • Ideal, no limit
Starting from 100 copies at 90% efficiency, the model reaches 4.3 × 10¹¹ copies after 35 cycles, leveling off below the 10¹² ceiling. It crosses the threshold of 10¹⁰ copies at cycle 28.7. Use the left and right arrow keys to read values.10²10³10⁴10⁵10⁶10⁷10⁸10⁹10¹⁰10¹¹05101520253035CycleCopies (log scale)Threshold reached (Ct 28.7)

Quantitative PCR uses this curve to measure how much DNA a sample started with. More starting DNA crosses the threshold sooner: at 90% efficiency, ten times more template reaches it about 3.6 cycles earlier. Try moving the starting copies slider and watch the threshold marker shift.

Established or emerging?

Decide how settled each use of biotechnology is, then check your answers. This is practice only; nothing is saved.

  • Copying a chosen stretch of DNA millions of times with PCR
  • Producing human insulin in engineered microbes
  • Vaccinating against COVID-19 with mRNA vaccines
  • Sequencing a complete human genome
  • Treating genetic diseases in patients with prime editing
  • Building living cells around minimal synthetic genomes

0 of 6 answered.

Ethics, safety and governance

Biotechnology has developed alongside rules for using it safely. In 1975, participants at the Asilomar conference concluded, though not unanimously, that recombinant DNA research should proceed under strict guidelines. The U.S. National Institutes of Health guidelines that followed in 1976 assigned each kind of experiment physical and biological containment levels.Source: Berg et al., 1975Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine Today the World Health Organization's laboratory biosafety manual takes an evidence- and risk-based approach, balancing safety measures against the actual risk of the work on a case-by-case basis.Source: WHO, 2020

Human genome editing raises its own questions. Reports from the U.S. National Academies in 2017 and the World Health Organization in 2021 set out recommendations for oversight, distinguishing editing a patient's body cells from heritable editing that could pass changes to future generations.Source: National Academies, 2017Source: WHO, 2021Source: WHO, 2021

Safety note

This lab explains concepts and history. It does not provide laboratory protocols, and nothing here should be attempted outside a properly supervised and approved laboratory.

Your progress

Sources & further reading

The explanations on this page are our own summaries of these sources. Follow a link to read the original; if anything here disagrees with it, the original wins. How we choose and check sources.

  2. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro (opens the original in a new tab)

    Cohen SN, Chang AC, Boyer HW, et al. (1973). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 70:3240-3244.

    Recombinant plasmids that replicate in bacteria.

    Historical paperPrimary research

  4. Summary statement of the Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA molecules (opens the original in a new tab)

    Berg P, Baltimore D, Brenner S, et al. (1975). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 72:1981-1984.

    Scientists' own guidelines for the safe conduct of recombinant DNA research.

    Peer-reviewedPerspective
Show 56 more sources

  2. A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity (opens the original in a new tab)

    Jinek M, Chylinski K, Fonfara I, et al. (2012). Science 337:816-821.

    Showed Cas9 can be programmed with guide RNA to cut chosen DNA sequences.

    Peer-reviewedPrimary research

  8. Efficacy and safety of voretigene neparvovec (AAV2-hRPE65v2) in patients with RPE65-mediated inherited retinal dystrophy: a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3 trial (opens the original in a new tab)

    Russell S, Bennett J, Wellman JA, et al. (2017). The Lancet 390:849-860.

    Peer-reviewedClinical trial

  24. Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types (opens the original in a new tab)

    Avery OT, MacLeod CM, McCarty M (1944). Journal of Experimental Medicine 79:137-158.

    Evidence that DNA is the transforming principle that carries hereditary information.

    Historical paperPrimary research

  30. The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides (opens the original in a new tab)

    Nirenberg MW, Matthaei JH (1961). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 47:1588-1602.

    First codon assignment: poly-U RNA directs synthesis of polyphenylalanine.

    Historical paperPrimary research

  32. Thermus aquaticus gen. n. and sp. n., a nonsporulating extreme thermophile (opens the original in a new tab)

    Brock TD, Freeze H (1969). Journal of Bacteriology 98:289-297.

    Isolation of the hot-spring bacterium later used as the source of Taq polymerase.

    Historical paperPrimary research

  33. Biochemical method for inserting new genetic information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: circular SV40 DNA molecules containing lambda phage genes and the galactose operon of Escherichia coli (opens the original in a new tab)

    Jackson DA, Symons RH, Berg P (1972). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 69:2904-2909.

    Historical paperPrimary research