Level of life
RNA
A single-stranded relative of DNA. Messenger RNA carries a gene's instructions to ribosomes, and other RNAs help build proteins and control genes.
Protein
A chain of amino acids folded into a working shape. Proteins act as enzymes, structures, signals and transporters.Source: NHGRISource: NHGRISource: Anfinsen, 1973
Level of life
How Protein connects
Protein is translated from
Molecule
Messenger RNA
A copy of a gene's instructions that carries them from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are made.
Protein makes up
Level of life
Cell
The smallest unit that can live on its own. Every living thing is made of one or more cells.
Protein is controlled by
Process
Gene expression
Using a gene's information to make its product. Cells switch genes on and off as conditions change.
Protein includes the example
Molecule
Hemoglobin
The oxygen-carrying protein of red blood cells. Its beta chain is encoded by the HBB gene.
Molecule
Enzyme
A biological catalyst that speeds up a reaction without being used up. Most are proteins, but some RNAs are catalysts too, including the core of the ribosome.
Molecule
Ion channel
A protein pore that lets particular ions cross a membrane. Single channels can be recorded opening and closing.
Molecule
Antibody
A Y-shaped protein made by B cells that binds a specific target. Rearranging gene segments creates enormous antibody diversity.
Protein is made of
Molecule
Amino acids
The building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids, linked in sequences encoded by genes.
Protein is involved in
Process
Protein folding
A protein's amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional shape it folds into, and that shape lets it work.
Protein is described by
Idea or model
Protein structure
Atomic models of proteins, first solved by X-ray crystallography, are shared openly through the Protein Data Bank.
Studied in
Your progress
Sources & further reading
The explanations on this page are our own summaries of these sources. Follow a link to read the original; if anything here disagrees with it, the original wins. How we choose and check sources.
Protein (opens the original in a new tab)
National Human Genome Research Institute. Talking Glossary of Genomic and Genetic Terms. National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH.
ReferenceGovernment sourceEducationalAmino Acids (opens the original in a new tab)
National Human Genome Research Institute. Talking Glossary of Genomic and Genetic Terms. National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH.
ReferenceGovernment sourceEducationalPrinciples that govern the folding of protein chains (opens the original in a new tab)
Anfinsen CB (1973). Science 181:223-230.
Nobel lecture: a protein's sequence determines its folded structure.
Historical paperPrimary research